Nature of Source
Research into the origin and distribution of surnames. Analysis of the distribution of a surname could offer clues to the geographical location of a person or family being researched. Surnames generally came into use during the middle ages especially with the need to record inheritances and land transfers. The growth of settlements and towns also needed a way of distinguishing one person from another.
There are four broad categories from which surnames derive and may indicate the trade or place of origin of a person:
Patronymic
These are surnames derived from the name of a father or grandfather. Thus Richard the son of John was known as Richard Johnson. Confusingly, William the son of the aforementioned Richard could become known as William Richardson. However over time, it became normal to maintain the patronymic through the generations. Sometimes the surname’s spelling changed over time such as Anderson (Andrew’s son) and Harris (Harry’s son). Jones is the Welsh version for Johnson. Fitz meaning ‘son’ in French became a popular prefix after the Norman invasion, especially in Ireland e.g. Fitzhugh. In Scotland and Ireland, surnames often began with Mac (Gaelic for ‘son of’ or ‘descendant of’). Irish surnames beginning with ‘O’ mean ‘grandson of’. In Scotland especially in the Highlands many people assumed the surname of the local Clan Chief such as Campbell. In Wales the prefix ‘ap’ or ‘ab’ (from the word ‘mab’ the Welsh for son) before a vowel means ‘son of’ as in Hugh ap Richard. Over time these name became shortened so Hugh ap Richard became Hugh Pritchard. The patronymic naming convention can also create difficulties for researchers whereby a father’s forename or first name is given to the child as a surname. Instead of a family name remaining the same over generations, family surnames kept changing over successive generations.
In Ireland Gaelic surnames declined over the centuries as many families translated their names into English or anglicised them. Some adopted new ones altogether often based on their profession or place of origin. With the rise in use of the Irish language in the 19th century and a heightened awareness of their cultural heritage many Irish families reverted to their original Irish surnames.
Descriptive or nickname
These names were assigned based on the physical characteristics of a person. Examples include Little, Long and Small to describe physical size, Red, Redhead or Black after hair colour or complexion and Armstrong, Stern and Stout describing personal characteristics.
Occupational
Many of these names are self-evident such as Smith, Farmer, Wright and Cooper. Others are less obvious such as Baxter (baker), Chandler (candle maker), Day (dairy worker), Fletcher (arrow maker), Frobisher (armour and sword polisher), Leach (doctor), Machin (stone-worker), Redman (reed thatcher), and Webster (weaver).
Geographical or Locational
These provide around a half of surname origins and are based on a person’s residence. Look for suffixes such as -lee (meadow), -bank, -don or -ton (town), -ham (village), -field, -house, -thorp (village).
Be aware of unreliable websites offering misleading and far-fetched surname origins. Naming patterns can offer clues to the names of a person’s ancestors but strict adherence to these patterns declined in the 19th century. The most usual pattern was: 1st son after paternal grandfather 2nd son after maternal grandfather 3rd son after father 1st daughter after maternal grandmother 2nd daughter after paternal grandmother 3rd daughter after mother In Scotland from the early 1800’s onwards it became common to assign a middle name after the mother’s maiden name or one of the grandmother’s maiden names.
Sometimes a name is found in an original record or in a transcription that appears to be a name variant. However it may simply be a misspelling of the name and is known as a ‘deviant’ name.
Until recently most people tended to live and work in the same area. Therefore the distribution of a surname can offer clues to the residence of a person or family. More complex surname analysis covering a particular area can help with family history by establishing demographic trends within that area.
The main procedures used by historical demographers to analyse population trends is family reconstitution or reconstruction and aggregation. The former method involves the collection of data mainly from parish registers (baptisms, marriages and burials) but also from other sources such as poor law records, wills, taxation records such as the Hearth Tax and manorial surveys. The data is collected from a small area or on one family and then linked to construct a demographic picture across other generations and so determine demographic trends. The latter procedure aggregates or totals the number of events such as baptisms, marriages and burials on an annual basis and so provides the data to study population trends. These methods could identify patterns of naming individuals including middle names and of family movements and origins. Be aware however that even immediate family members might not share the same surname so all surnames connected to a family will need gathering. Once the data is assembled and analysed, the next step is to construct family groups and family trees which should reveal the likely links to an ancestor being researched.
Additional Resources
The following GenGuide sources could assist in researching Surnames:
Where Found
Period Covered
1400 – Onwards
Genealogical Value
- The origin of a surname helps locate and place an ancestor in a geographical location and offer a possible family occupation.
Further References
General Surnames and First Names
- Ayto, John. Encyclopedia of Surnames: A & C Black, 2007
- Bardsley, Alan. First Name Variants: Federation of Family History Societies, Jan 2003
- Davis, Graeme. Research Your Surname and Your Family Tree: How To Books, 2010
- Dunkling, Leslie Alan. First Names First: Gale Group, 1982
- Fiennes, Joslin. The Origins of English Surnames: Robert Hale, 2015
- Hanks, Patrick & Hodges, Flavia. Dictionary of Surnames: OUP, 1988
- Hanks, Patrick & Hardcastle, Kate & Hodges, Flavia. A Dictionary of First Names: OUP, 2006
- Kennett, Debbie. The Surnames Handbook: A Guide to Family Name Research in the 21st Century: The History Press, 2012
- Lewis, William. What’s in your Surname?: Brazen Head, 2010
- McKie, David. What’s in a Surname?: A Journey from Abercrombie to Zwicker: Windmill Books, 2014
- Mckinley, R. A History of British Surnames: Longman, 1990
- McLaughlin, Eve. Surnames and their Origins: Varneys Press, 1997
- Matthews, Constance Mary. How Surnames Began: Lutterworth Press, 2007
- Parkin, Harry (ed). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain: Oxford University Press, 2021
- Pine, Leslie Gilbert. The Story of Surnames: Country Life, 1965
- Redmonds, George & King, Turi & Hey, David. Surnames, DNA, and Family History: OUP, 2011
- Redmonds, George. Christian Names in Local and Family History: Dundurn, 2004
- Redmonds, George. Names and History: People, Places and Things: Hambledon, 2004
- Seven Pillars of Wisdom: The Art of One-Name Studies: Guild of One-Name Studies, 2012
- Smith, Elsdon. The Story of Our Names: Harper & Brothers, 1950
- Titford, John. Searching for Surnames: A Practical Guide to Their Meanings and Origins: Countryside Books, 2002
- Titford, John. Penguin Dictionary of British Surnames: Penguin, 2009
- Wrigley, E. A. (ed.). Identifying People in the Past: Arnold, 1973
England & Wales
- Bardsley, Charles Wareing Endell. A Dictionary of English and Welsh Surnames: With Special American Instances: H. Frowde, 1901 (available to read online or download from the Internet Archive)
- Bardsley, Charles Wareing Endell. English Surnames: Their Sources and Significations: Chato and Windus, 1875 (available to read online or download from the Internet Archive)
- Honore, Sue, & Merry, Richard & Feinstein, Jessica. Exploring Oxfordshire Surnames: People, Places and Lives: Troubador Publishing, 2022
- Morgan, T. J., & Morgan, P. Welsh Surnames: University of Wales Press, 1985
- Reaney, Percy Hide. A Dictionary of English Surnames. 3rd ed: Oxford University Press, 2005
- Reaney, PH & Wilson, RM. A Dictionary of English Surnames: Routledge, 1991 (Preview online at Google Books)
- Redmonds, George. A Dictionary of Yorkshire Surnames: Paul Watkins Publishing, 2015
- Rowlands, John & Rowlands, Sheila. The Surnames of Wales for Family Historians and Others: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1999
- Rowlands, John & Rowlands, Sheila. The Surnames of Wales Updated and Expanded: Gomer Press, 2013
- White, George Pawley. A Handbook of Cornish Surnames: Truran, 1981
Scotland
- Black, George. The surnames of Scotland: Their Origin, Meaning and History: Birlinn, 1999 (Available to read online or download)
- Dorward, David. Scottish Surnames: HarperCollins, 1995
- Dunkling, Leslie Alan. Scottish Christian Names: An A to Z of First Names: Bacon (G.W.) & Co., 1999
- Way, George and Squire, Romilly. Collins Scottish Clan and Family Encyclopedia: HarperCollins, 1994
Ireland
- Bell, Robert. The Book of Ulster Surnames: Ulster Historical Foundation, 2021
- Grenham, John. Irish Family Names: The Histories of Over 120 Famous Irish Surnames: Collins, 1997
- Mitchell, Brian. The Surnames of North West Ireland: Concise Histories of the Major Surnames of Gaelic and Planter Origin: Genealogical Publishing Company, 2010
- MacLysaght, Edward: Irish Families: Their Names, Arms and Origins. Hodges Figgis, 1987 (available to borrow at the Internet Archive)
- MacLysaght, Edward. The Surnames of Ireland: Irish University Press, 1969 (available to borrow at the Internet Archive and the sixth edition at Internet Archives)
- MacLysaght, Edward. Supplement to Irish Surnames: GPC, 1969
- MacLysaght, Edward. More Irish families: Irish Academic Press, 1996 (available to borrow at the Internet Archive)
- Muhr, Kay & Ó hAisibéil, Liam. The Oxford Dictionary of Family Names of Ireland: Oxford University Press, 2021
- O’Laughlin, Michael. The Master Book of Irish Surnames: Irish Genealogical Foundation, 1993
- O’Laughlin, Michael. The Birth Index of Ireland: Irish Genealogical Foundation, 2004
- Quinn, Sean. Surnames in Ireland: Irish Genealogy Press, 2000
- Woulfe, Patrick. Irish Names and Surnames: Irish Genealogical Foundation, 1992
Jewish
- Beider, Alexander. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from the Kingdom of Poland: Avotaynu, 1996
- Beider, Alexander. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from the Russian Empire: Avotaynu. 1993
- Beider, Alexander. Dictionary of Ashkenazic Given Names: Avotaynu
- Beider, Alexander. Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from Galicia: Avotaynu
- Gorr, Shmuel. Jewish Personal Names: Avotaynu
- Guggenheimer, Henrich W., and Eva A. Guggenheimer. Jewish Family Names and Their Origins: An Etymological Dictionary: KTAV, 1992 (View online at Google Books)
- Kaganoff, Benzion. A Dictionary of Jewish Names & Their History: Schocken Books, 1977
- Menk, Lars. A Dictionary of German-Jewish Surnames: Avotaynu, 2005
Community Studies
- Drake, Michael and Finnegan, Ruth. Sources and Methods for Family and Community Historians: A Handbook. 2nd ed: Cambridge University Press, 1997v
- Few, Janet. Putting Your Ancestors in their Place: A Guide to One Place Studies: The Family History Partnership, 2014
- Golby, John (Ed). Communities and Families: Cambridge University Press, 1994 (View online at Google Books)
- Hawgood, David. One-Place Genealogy: D. Hawgood, 2001
- Rogers. Colin. The Surname Detective: Investigating Surname Distribution in England Since 1086: Manchester University Press 1995 (View online at Google Books)
- Todd, Andrew. Family History Nuts and Bolts; Problem-Solving through Family Reconstitution Techniques: Andrew Todd, 2015
- Wrigley, E. A. (Ed). Identifying People in the Past: Arnold, 1973
- Wrigley, E. A. [et al.]. English Population History from Family Reconstitution, 1580-1837: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997
Websites
United Kingdom Resources
The Surname Society
The society is a not-for-profit entity focusing on single surname studies Membership of the Society is open to any individual, group or association with an interest in surname studies, regardless of their location in the world, the surname they are studying or their level of research expertise.
GBNames
ESRC Consumer Data Research Centre. Explore the distribution and history of family names in Great Britain. The project uses historic censuses for the years 1851, 1861, 1881-1901 and 1911 and recent consumer registers to map geographical patterns of surnames.
Behind the Name
The site focuses on the etymology and history of surnames covering English, Scottish, Irish, Welsh and Jewish Names.
British Surnames
Find information on similar surnames, most common surnames, surname distribution maps as well as surname meanings and etymologies.
AboutBritain
Popular Victorian Names.
Internet Surname Database
Discover the history and origin of your family name.
House of Names
Discover the etymology and history of surnames.
Helen and Stephen Jones
Naming Traditions in England and Wales, with Examples from the 1891 Census for Weymouth Dorset.
Baby Names
Surnames and the Origins and Meanings of Surnames
Family Tree
How to find the origins of a surname. Find out where to begin with family name research and finding the origins of your surname with our beginners’ guide.
EDSITEment
National Endowment for the Humanities: Lesson Plans: Lesson 1: How Did Surnames Come to Be?; Lesson 2: What’s In A Name? British Surnames Derived from Places; Lesson 3: British Surnames Derived from Occupations or Professions; Lesson 4: Non-British Surnames.
London Census 1891 Transcription
The site offers lists extracted from the 1891 census of Common surnames in 1891; Popular male first names in 1891 and popular female first names in 1891.
Guild of One-Name Studies
The Guild is a worldwide charitable organisation dedicated to one-name studies and research into the genealogy and family history of all persons with the same surname. A one-name study focuses on collecting information about a single surname worldwide, regardless of familial relationships. The Guild supports various approaches to these studies, from family reconstruction to data collection and storytelling.
Guild of One-Name Studies
Surname Variants and Deviants. The guide deals with the concepts of variants and deviants with reference to the different spellings and forms a surname can take over time.
FamilyTree
What’s the meaning of my surname? Curious about the origin of your surname? Whether your family name comes from an occupation, location, or ancestral trait, this guide will help you understand what your last name means and how to trace its roots.
Society of Genealogists
Surname searching: What’s been done before?
Family Tree Magazine
Surname Research: Your Complete Guide.
The National Archives Blog
What’s in a surname?
FamilyTree
Discover free and easy ways to learn more about your family names
FamilyTree
How to find the origins of a surname. Find out where to begin with family name research and finding the origins of your surname with our beginners’ guide.
Historic UK
History of Surnames.
Ancestry
Discover the meaning and history behind your last name as well as surname distribution in the 1891 census and surname origins.
GENUKI
Early Distribution of some Surnames in Devon, by Max Hoope
We Relate
Variant names. The site offers a comprehensive database of name variants.
Medieval Names Archive
Collection of articles on medieval and Renaissance names intended to help historical re-creators to choose authentic names with guides and links to medieval naming patterns.
FamilySearch Research Wiki
Wales Naming Customs.
FamilySearch Research Wiki
Traditional Nicknames in Old Documents. Alphabetical list of historic personal nicknames and what they represent.
Scotland’s People
Forenames. This guide is about forenames and how to search effectively by forename in records that are indexed by personal name. It gives you some background on forenames in Scotland and explains why forenames have variations.
Scotland’s People
Surnames. This guide is about surnames and how to search effectively by surname in records that are indexed by personal name. It gives you some background on the development of surnames in Scotland and tells you common reasons why surnames have variations.
Name Nerds
The site dedicated to the origins and meanings of first names from Ireland, Scotland and Wales as well as general information on first names.
Baby Names
Dictionary on name meanings. Uncover thousands of baby names and discover the meaning of names, their origins, pronunciations and popularity
Scottish Surname Maps
Plot out Scottish surnames distributed on the map of Scotland using data from the 1901 Scottish census.
Family Tree Forum
Naming Patterns. Here are the common patterns for English, Welsh, Irish, Scottish, and Cornish families.
Findmypast Blog
A handy guide to traditional Scottish naming patterns, by Alex Cox
The Cambridge Group
The Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure. The Group was founded in 1964 and undertakes quantitative research in family history and demographic history.
Surrey Heritage
Family Reconstruction
Ireland Resources
Irish Surname Maps
Irish Surname Maps for the 1901 and 1911 Census of Ireland. Plot out more than 6,000 Irish surnames distributed on the map of Ireland using data from the 1901 and 1911 Irish censuses.
Irish Names
John Grenham. Enter a surname and see how the name is mapped to counts of surnames recorded year-by-year in state registrations of births in Ireland between 1864 and 1913; The number and location of households of the name in Ireland 1848-64; A surname map, showing numbers and locations throughout Ireland; Variant spellings or associated names; Surname dictionary entries; Surname histories; The number and location of births of the name in 1890; Published or printed family histories; A possible coat of arms associated with the name.
IrishSurnames
Irish Names. The origin of Irish Family Names. The site explains the origin of and evolution of Irish names and particularly how names have changed over the centuries
Findmypast
Ireland Surnames & Family Histories. Discover more about your Irish family name and history from this collection of Irish publications.
Library Ireland
Irish Names. Various searchable digitised books about Irish names, their meaning and etymology. The site offers free online access to a broad range of Irish related material including articles, digitised reference books and searchable databases covering Irish history, genealogy, and culture.
SWilson
Explore surname distribution in mid-19th century in Ireland based on analysis of data on Griffiths Valuation; List of the most common surnames in Ireland based on analysis of births registered in Ireland during 1890.
IrishCentral
The top 100 Irish last names explained, by Bryan Fitzgerald
Ulster Historical Foundation
Distribution of Surnames/Householders Report. Ulster, mid-19th century. This resource provides an indication as to the parishes and counties in the province of Ulster where a surname is most concentrated. It covers the surnames of farmers (usually leaseholders) in the tithe applotment books compiled 1823-1838 and also all names of property occupiers in the printed version of the tenement valuation, known as ‘Griffith Valuation’, covering all properties in Ulster 1857-1864.
Worldwide Resources
Meertens Instituut
Database of Surnames in the Netherlands. The site presents the 300 000 surnames of all persons with the Dutch nationality who lived in the Netherlands in the year 2007. Also included are about 120.000 family names registered at the census from 1947.
Public Profiler
The website offers tools and resources for name mapping and demographic profiling. It also offers a world family name mapping, name origin classification and geographic analysis of surnames in Great Britain.
MyHeritage Knowledge Base
What’s in a Surname: The History of Surnames and How They Help in Family History Research.
Genealogy.com
The Importance of Names and Naming Patterns. Why are Names Important and What Can you Learn from a First Name?, by Donna Przecha
Forebears
Search for meanings and geographic distribution of 31 million surnames
International Council of Onomastic Sciences
The organisation dedicated to the study of names, including place-names, personal names, and proper names. It serves as a hub for scholars interested in onomastics, promoting research and knowledge sharing worldwide.
International Council of Onomastic Sciences
Surname mapping websites. Links to sites covering the UK and the rest of the world offering surname mapping.
Onomastik
The German language site provides information and resources for people interested in the meaning, origin and science of names. The site provides insights into the history and significance of family names, including distribution maps and lists of common surnames.
Family Education
Genealogy: Cracking the Soundex Code. Learn how to deal with the various spellings of last names you come across in your genealogical research.
Online Databases
www.geneaservice.nl/navigator/index.html (Surname Navigator: Search across multiple genealogy databases)
http://gendexnetwork.org (GenDex Network: Free genealogical index which indexes family trees on the internet)
www.genealogyintime.com (Genealogy Search Engine: Search billions of free online ancestral records across 500+ websites from around the world; Family Tree Search Engine: Search genealogy forums and online family trees)
https://randymajors.com/p/ancestorsearch.html (AncestorSearch: This free family search engine created by Randy Majors transforms searches for ancestors using the power of Google Search. The ancestry search engine uses Google Search enhancements so that you’re much more likely to find mentions of ancestors that are otherwise buried in thousands of Google search results)
https://named.publicprofiler.org (Named by PublicProfiler. Name mapping which shows where surnames are unusually prevalent compared with the local general population)
www.thegenealogist.co.uk (Change of Names Database. Search ancestors who officially changed their forename or surname in Britain. The information is gathered from a number of sources including Private Acts of Parliament, Royal Licences published in the London and Dublin Gazettes and notices of changes of name published in The Times after 1861)
CD Roms
Hathi Trust Digital Library (Black, George. The surnames of Scotland: Their Origin, Meaning and History. Available to read online or download)
